Ghibli is an Italian word for hot wind from the Sahara Desert. It may refer to:
The ulna (elbow bone) is a long bone, prismatic in form, placed at the medial side of the forearm, parallel with the radius.
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The ulna articulates with:
The ulna is broader proximally, and narrower distally.
Proximally, the ulna has a bony process, the olecranon process, a hook-like structure that fits into the olecranon fossa of the humerus. This prevents hyperextension and forms a hinge joint with the trochlea of the humerus.
There is also a radial notch for the head of the radius, and the ulnar tuberosity to which muscles can attach.
Distally (near the hand), there is a styloid process.
It is divisible into a body and two extremities.
The long, narrow medullary cavity is enclosed in a strong wall of compact tissue which is thickest along the interosseous border and dorsal surface.
At the extremities the compact layer thins.
The compact layer is continued onto the back of the olecranon as a plate of close spongy bone with lamellæ parallel.
From the inner surface of this plate and the compact layer below it trabeculæ arch forward toward the olecranon and coronoid and cross other trabeculæ, passing backward over the medullary cavity from the upper part of the shaft below the coronoid.
Below the coronoid process there is a small area of compact bone from which trabeculæ curve upward to end obliquely to the surface of the semilunar notch which is coated with a thin layer of compact bone.
The trabeculæ at the lower end have a more longitudinal direction.
In telecommunications, basic service is:
1. A pure transmission capability over a communication path that is virtually transparent in terms of its interaction with customer-supplied information.
2. The offering of transmission capacity between two or more points suitable for a user’s transmission needs and subject only to the technical parameters of fidelity and distortion criteria, or other conditioning.
Loose Connection is a community wireless (Wi-Fi) project based in Brighton, UK. Started in April 2003 aiming to provide wireless Internet to residents of Brighton and particularly patrons of the public houses they regularly occupy.
There are currently 19 Loose Connection hotspots around Brighton & Hove, these hotspots are free to use and do not require a username or password to access services.
Loose Connection is owned and operated by MetraNet, a small wireless broadband supplier, now promoting the use of Wimax, that has grown out of the WiFi culture it has developed in Brighton and Hove since Loose Connection started creating free wireless hotspots.
The nephroid is a plane curve whose name means kidney-shaped (compare nephrology.) Although the term nephroid was used to describe other curves, it was applied to the curve in this article by Proctor in 1878. This and the information below may be verified in Lockwood, pp. 62-71 (see References).
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Parametric equations for the nephroid shown above, with cusps on the y-axis, are given by
When the cusps lie on the x-axis, parametric equations are given by
A Cartesian equation for the nephroid is
Note: All properties refer to the nephroid as parameterized by the first pair of equations above.
The arc length and area of the nephroid are, respectively,
The radius of curvature is given by
A nephroid may be viewed as a caustic of a circle for parallel rays. In other words, if a circle reflected parallel rays of light, the reflected rays would envelope a nephroid. Two such reflected rays are shown in blue.
This reflective property explains why a bright light produces a nephroid-shaped reflection at the bottom of a coffee mug.
Note: In the figure, the parallel rays intersect the circle at points spaced 4 degrees apart around its circumference.
A nephroid may be created as an envelope of circles. Begin with a base circle (blue), then select a point on this circle (red dot). With this point as center, draw a circle (red) tangent to the y-axis. When several such circles are drawn, the image of a nephroid is produced.
Note: In the figure, there are 36 circles whose centers are spaced 10 degrees apart on the base circle.
A nephroid may be created as an envelope of lines. Begin with a circle of radius a. For various values of t, join the points which are t degrees and 3t degrees around this circle. In other words, join the points <math>(a\cos t,a\sin t)</math> and <math>(a\cos 3t,a\sin 3t).</math> These lines envelope a nephroid.
Note: In the figure, there are 90 lines corresponding to the parameter t taking on values which are multiples of 4.
The nephroid is also an epicycloid of two cusps. In the figure, the small blue circle of radius a is externally tangent to the larger black circle of radius 2a. As the smaller circle rolls around the larger circle without slipping, so that the two red arcs are always the same length, the green point traces out a nephroid.
This figure shows the nephroid as an epicycloid in another way. The large blue circle of radius 3a is internally tangent to the smaller black circle of radius 2a. As the larger circle rolls around the smaller circle without slipping, so that the two red arcs are always the same length, the green point traces out a nephroid.
The evolute of the nephroid is another nephroid half as large and rotated 90 degrees. The original nephroid is visible as an envelope of its osculating circles (gray). Two osculating circles are shown (blue). The centers of these circles are seen to lie on the evolute (smaller nephroid, red).
Note: In the figure, there are 60 circles corresponding to the parameter t taking on values which are multiples of 6.
Because the evolute of the nephroid is another nephroid, so the involute of the nephroid is also another nephroid. The original nephroid (envelope of gray circles) in the previous image is the involute of the smaller red nephroid.
The inverse with respect to the origin of the nephroid (red) is the curve shown as an envelope of circles (black). These circles are inverse to those in the above figure describing the nephroid as an envelope of circles.
Inverting about a circle of radius a, a Cartesian equation for the inverse is
Lockwood, E. H., A Book of Curves, Cambridge University Press, 1961.
Limerick lace is an embroidered needle lace formed on a mesh using one or both of two techniques…
This is associated with the city of Limerick in Ireland.
When John F. Kennedy visited Limerick in 1963 he was presented with a lace christening robe.
Peter Power (born 26 January, 1966) is an Irish Fianna Fáil politician. He is a TD for the constituency of Limerick East. Power was first elected to Dáil Éireann in the 2002 general election. Previous to his election as a TD he worked as a solicitor in Limerick.
He is chair of the joint Oireachtas Child Protection committee and also a member of the Justice and Transportation committees.
Sensitometry is the scientific study of light-sensitive materials, especially photographic film. The study has its origins in the work by Ferdinand Hurter and Vero Charles Driffield (circa 1876) with early black-and-white emulsions. They determined how the density of silver produced varied with the amount of light received, and the method and time of development.
Plots of film density (log of opacity) versus the log of exposure are called characteristic curves, Hurter–Driffield curves, HD curves, H & D curves, D–logE curves, or D–logH curves. The overall shape is a bit like an “S” slanted so that its base and top are horizontal. There is usually a central region of the HD curve which approximates to a straight line, called the “linear” or “straight-line” portion; the slope of this region is called the gamma. The low end is called the “toe”, and at the top, the curve rounds over to form the “shoulder”.
Usable values of gamma are typically between 0.8 and 1.2. (But values of up to 1.5 may be useful for slides). A full set of HD curves for a film shows how these vary with developer type and time. A curve is shown in the Kodak Publication Selecting Films > Sensitometric & Image-Structure Data.
In physics, a symmetry describes a quality of a physical system that is independent upon modifying variables that describe that system (one says that the theory is invariant under such transformations). A rigid symmetry, commonly referred to as a global symmetry, is a symmetry that holds for transformations that act in the same way at all points in the space-time under consideration. A local symmetry is a symmetry whose transformations are allowed to act differently at each point in the space-time; i.e. the parameters describing a given transformation are functions on the space-time.
Local symmetries have an important role in modern physics, and are commonly referred to as “gauge” symmetries (see gauge theory).
O2OPTIX[1] (also known as AIR OPTIX™ in Europe, the Middle East and Africa) is a brand of highly breathable[2] contact lenses made by CIBA Vision. They are soft contact lenses made from a silicone hydrogel material consisting of approximately 67% lotrafilcon B, 33% water, and have a patented surface treatment to resist deposits for more comfortable lens wear. O2OPTIX lenses transmit up to five times more oxygen versus traditional soft contact lenses - for whiter, healthy-looking eyes. O2OPTIX lenses are approved for daily wear and extended wear for up to six continuous nights.[3]
| Material: | lotrafilcon B |
| Composition: | Silicone hydrogel |
| Diameter (mm): | 14.2 |
| Water Content: | 33% |
| Base Curve (mm): | 8.6 |
| Handling Tint: | Light blue |
| Dk: | 110 |
| Dk/t: | 138 |
| Center Thickness: | 0.08mm @ -3.00D |
| Surface Treatment: | Plasma Polymerisation |
| Design: | Aspheric; toric for Astigmatism in some countries |
| Powers (spherical): | +6.00D to -8.00D (in 0.25D steps) and -8.50D to -10.00D (in 0.50D steps) |
| Powers (toric for Astigmatism): | From plano to -6.00D in 0.25D steps, with cylinder powers of -0.75D and -1.25D and axes around-the-clock in 10° steps. |
| Wearing Schedule: | Daily wear / up to 6 nights continuous wear |
| Recommended Replacement: | Please consult your eye care professional for recommended replacement schedules |
[1]Currently, in Japan the brand name O2OPTIX is used for contact lenses made from a different silicone hydrogel material, lotrafilcon A. The information provided here is for lenses made from the lotrafilcon B material which is not currently commercialized in Japan.
[2]Dk/t = 138 at -3.00D. Other factors may impact eye health.
[3]Please consult your eye care professional for recommended wearing schedules, and see product instructions for complete wear, care and safety information.
Jacksonville is the largest city in the state of Florida and the county seat of Duval County. Since 1968, Jacksonville has been the largest city in land area in the contiguous United States; this resulted from the consolidation of the city and county government, along with a corresponding expansion of the city limits to include almost the entire county. As of the 2006 census estimate, the city proper had an estimated population of 794,555 with a metropolitan population of more than 1.3 million. Jacksonville is the third most populated city on the East Coast, after New York City and Philadelphia. It is the central city of the Jacksonville Metropolitan Statistical Area, the fourth largest metropolitan area in the state.
About south of the Georgia border, Jacksonville is in the First Coast region of northeast Florida and is centered on the banks of the St. Johns River. The settlement that became Jacksonville was founded in 1791 as Cowford, because of its location at a narrow point in the river across which cattle were once driven. The city was renamed in 1822 for Andrew Jackson, the first military governor of the Florida Territory and eventual seventh President of the United States.
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The history of Jacksonville spans hundreds of years, and has been influenced by the area’s unique geography and location. The first settlement in the area, called Ossachite, was made over 6,000 years ago by the Timucua Indians in the vicinity of modern-day downtown Jacksonville.
European explorers first arrived in 1562, when French Huguenot explorer Jean Ribault charted the St. Johns River. René Goulaine de Laudonnière established the first European settlement at Fort Caroline two years later. On September 20, 1565, a Spanish force attacked Fort Caroline from the nearby Spanish settlement of St. Augustine, and killed all the French soldiers defending it (except Catholics). The Spanish renamed it Fort San Mateo. Two years later, Dominique de Gourgues recaptured the settlement from the Spanish and slaughtered all of the Spanish defenders. After the initial destruction of Fort Caroline, St. Augustine became the most important settlement in Florida. Florida was a Spanish possession until it became a territory of the United States in 1821. The Florida Legislative Council approved a charter for a town government on February 9, 1832.
During the American Civil War, Jacksonville was a key supply point for hogs and cattle leaving Florida and aiding the Confederate cause. The city was blockaded by the Union, changing hands several times. Though no battles were fought in Jacksonville, the city was left in a considerable state of disarray after the war.
During Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, Jacksonville and nearby St. Augustine became popular winter resorts for the rich and famous. Visitors arrived by steamboat and later by railroad. The city’s tourism, however, was dealt major blows in the late 1800s by yellow fever outbreaks and the extension of the Florida East Coast Railway to south Florida.
On May 3, 1901, downtown Jacksonville was ravaged by a fire that was started at a fiber factory. Known as the “Great Fire of 1901″, it was one of the worst disasters in Florida history and the largest ever urban fire in the Southeast; it destroyed the business district and rendered 10,000 residents homeless in the course of eight hours. It is said the glow from the flames could be seen in Savannah, Georgia; smoke plumes in Raleigh, North Carolina. Famed New York architect Henry John Klutho was a primary figure in the reconstruction of the city. More than 13,000 buildings were constructed between 1901 and 1912.
In the 1910s, New York-based moviemakers were attracted to Jacksonville’s warm climate, exotic locations, excellent rail access, and cheap labor. Over the course of the decade, more than 30 silent film studios were established, earning Jacksonville the title “Winter Film Capital of the World”. However, the city’s conservative political climate and the emergence of Hollywood as a major film production center ended the city’s film industry. One converted movie studio site (Norman Studios) remains in Arlington; It has been converted to the Jacksonville Silent Film Museum at Norman Studios.
During this time, Jacksonville also became a banking and insurance center, with companies such as Barnett Bank, Atlantic National Bank, Florida National Bank, Prudential, Gulf Life, Afro-American Insurance, Independent Life and American Heritage Life thriving in the business district. The U.S. Navy also became a major employer and economic force during the 1940s, with the installation of three major naval bases in the city. Jacksonville, like most large cities in the United States, suffered from negative effects of rapid urban sprawl after World War II.
Jacksonville is located at (30.319406, -81.659999). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 2,264.5 km² (874.3 mi²), making Jacksonville the largest city in land area in the contiguous United States. 1,962.4 km² (757.7 mi²) of it is land and 302.1 km² (116.7 mi²) of it (13.34%) is water. The city is almost three times the area of New York City but with just under 800,000 people, Jacksonville has a low density rate. The St. Johns River runs through the city. The Trout River, a major tributary of the St. Johns River, is located entirely within Jacksonville.
Jacksonville has a humid subtropical climate, with mild weather during winters and hot weather during summers. High temperatures average 64 to 91 °F (18-33 °C) throughout the year. High heat indices are not uncommon for the summer months in the Jacksonville area. High temperatures can reach mid to high 90s with heat index ranges of 105-115 °F. The highest temperature ever recorded in Jacksonville was 105 °F (43 °C) on July 21, 1942. It is common for daily thunderstorms to erupt during a standard summer afternoon. These are caused by the heating of the land and water, combined with extremely high humidity.
During winter, the area can experience hard freezes during the night. Such cold weather is usually short lived. The coldest temperature recorded in Jacksonville was 7 °F (-14 °C) on January 21, 1985, a day that still holds the record cold for many locations in the eastern half of the US. Even rarer in Jacksonville than freezing temperatures is snow. When snow does fall, it usually melts before touching the ground, or upon making contact with the ground. Most denizens of Jacksonville can remember accumulated snow on only one occasion—a thin ground cover that occurred a few days before Christmas of 1989.
Jacksonville has suffered less damage from hurricanes than other east coast cities. The city has only received one direct hit from a hurricane since 1871, although Jacksonville has experienced hurricane or near-hurricane conditions more than a dozen times due to storms passing through the state from the Gulf of Mexico to the Atlantic Ocean. The strongest effect on Jacksonville was from Hurricane Dora in 1964, the only recorded storm to hit the First Coast with sustained hurricane force winds. The eye crossed St. Augustine, with winds that had just barely diminished to , making it a strong Category 2 on the Saffir-Simpson Scale.
Rainfall averages around 52 inches a year, with the wettest months being June through September.
| Monthly Normal and Record High and Low Temperatures | ||||||||||||
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rec High °F | 85 | 88 | 91 | 95 | 100 | 103 | 105 | 102 | 100 | 96 | 88 | 84 |
| Norm High °F | 64.2 | 67.3 | 73.4 | 78.6 | 84.3 | 88.7 | 90.8 | 89.4 | 86.1 | 79.1 | 72.5 | 65.8 |
| Norm Low °F | 41.9 | 44.3 | 49.8 | 54.6 | 62.5 | 69.4 | 72.4 | 72.2 | 69.4 | 59.7 | 50.8 | 44.1 |
| Rec Low °F | 7 | 19 | 23 | 34 | 45 | 47 | 61 | 59 | 48 | 36 | 21 | 11 |
| Precip (in) | 3.69 | 3.15 | 3.93 | 3.14 | 3.48 | 5.37 | 5.97 | 6.87 | 7.9 | 3.86 | 2.34 | 2.64 |
| Source: USTravelWeather.com | ||||||||||||
After World War II, the government of the City of Jacksonville began to increase spending to fund new building projects in the boom that occurred after the war. Mayor W. Haydon Burns’ Jacksonville Story resulted in the construction of a new city hall, civic auditorium, public library and other projects that created a dynamic sense of civic pride. However, the development of suburbs and a subsequent wave of “white flight” left Jacksonville with a much poorer population than before. Much of the city’s tax base dissipated, leading to problems with funding education, sanitation, and traffic control within the city limits. In addition, residents in unincorporated suburbs had difficulty obtaining municipal services such as sewage and building code enforcement. In 1958, a study recommended that the City of Jacksonville begin annexing outlying communities in order to create the needed tax base to improve services throughout the county. Voters outside the city limits rejected annexation plans in six referendums between 1960 and 1965.
In the mid 1960s, corruption scandals began to arise among many of the city’s officials, who were mainly elected through the traditional good ol’ boy network. After a grand jury was convened to investigate, several officials were indicted and more were forced to resign. Consolidation, led by JJ Daniel and Claude Yates, began to win more support during this period, from both inner city blacks (who wanted more involvement in government) and whites in the suburbs (who wanted more services and more control over the central city). The simultaneous disaccredation of all fifteen of Duval County’s public high schools in 1964 added momentum to the proposals for government reform. Lower taxes, increased economic development, unification of the community, better public spending and effective administration by a more central authority were all cited as reasons for a new consolidated government.
A consolidation referendum was held in 1967, and voters approved the plan. On October 1, 1968, the governments merged to create the Consolidated City of Jacksonville.
The most noteworthy feature of Jacksonville government is its consolidated nature. The Duval County-Jacksonville consolidation eliminated any type of separate county executive or legislature, and supplanted these positions with the Mayor of Jacksonville and the City Council of the City of Jacksonville, respectively. Because of this, voters who live outside of the city limits of Jacksonville, but inside of Duval County, are allowed not only to vote in elections for these positions, but to run for them as well. In fact, in 1995, John Delaney, a resident of Neptune Beach, was elected mayor of the City of Jacksonville.
Jacksonville uses the Mayor-Council form of city government, also called the Strong-Mayor form, in which a mayor serves as the city’s Chief Executive and Administrative officer. The mayor holds veto power over all resolutions and ordinances made by the city council, and also has the power to hire and fire the head of various city departments.
The city council has nineteen members, fourteen of whom are elected from single-member districts, and five who are ostensibly elected at-large. However, although these five additional council members are elected at-large, they are required to meet an unusual residency requirement. In the early 1990s, because these five “at-large” members were generally all elected from the same area, voters approved a change in the city government which divided the city up into five districts unrelated to any other districts, solely for the purpose of electing these at-large council members. Thus, at-large council members are elected from each of these five districts by the voters of the county as a whole.
Some government services remained—as they had been prior to consolidation – independent of both city and county authority. In accordance with Florida law, the school board continues to exist with nearly complete autonomy. Jacksonville also has several quasi-independent government agencies which only nominally answer to the consolidated authority, including, electric authority, port authority, and airport authority. Fire, police, health and welfare, recreation, public works, and housing and urban development were all combined under the new government.
Four municipalities within Duval County voted not to join the consolidated government. These were the communities of Baldwin, Neptune Beach, Atlantic Beach and Jacksonville Beach, which consist of only 6% of the total population within the county. The four separate communities provide their own services, while maintaining the right to contract the consolidated government to provide services for them. For example, in December of 2005, the city council of Baldwin voted to eliminate the Baldwin Police Department, a decision which was consummated in March of 2006. Since that time, the Jacksonville Sheriff’s Office has assumed policing responsibilities for the one-square mile town, located in the far western portion of Duval County. The main environmental and agricultural body is the Duval County Soil and Water Conservation District, which works closely with other area agencies.
Jacksonville is home to Jacksonville University, the University of North Florida, Florida Community College at Jacksonville, Edward Waters College, Art Institute of Jacksonville, Florida Coastal School of Law, Trinity Baptist College, Jones College, Florida Technical College, Logos Christian College, and Brewer Christian College.
Former mayor John Delaney has been president of the University of North Florida since leaving office in July 2003, parlaying his widespread popularity in the city into a position of leadership in the state university system.
Jacksonville, along with the standard district schools, is home to three International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme (”IB”) high schools. They are Stanton College Preparatory School, Paxon School for Advanced Studies and Jean Ribault Senior High School.Jacksonville also has a notable magnet high school devoted to the performing and expressive arts, Douglas Anderson School of the Arts. The Advanced International Certification of Education Program (”"A.I.C.E”) is available at Mandarin High School and William M. Raines Senior High School. Raines also offers the Pre-A.I.C.E. program (for 9th and 10th graders)
See also: List of high schools in Jacksonville
Jacksonville is home to two Catholic secondary schools: Bishop Kenny High School and Bishop John Snyder High School.http://www.bishopsnyder.org/ retrieved on May 12, 2007
The prestigious Bolles School and Episcopal High School of Jacksonville are also located in Jacksonville.
Interstate Highways 10 and 95 intersect in Jacksonville. Interstate Highway 10 ends at this intersection (the other end being in Santa Monica, California). The eastern terminus of US-90 is in nearby Jacksonville Beach near the Atlantic Ocean. Additionally, several other roads as well a major local expressway, J. Turner Butler Boulevard (SR 202) also connect Jacksonville to the beaches. Public transportation is provided by the Jacksonville Transportation Authority. The city has the JTA Skyway, an elevated monorail, which travels through the central business district. However, there are few Skyway stations and as such, traffic is light. The Skyway has been criticized in that it goes from “nowhere to nowhere” along its limited route, which encompasses only downtown and is of no help in commuting from suburban neighborhoods. Interstate 95 has a bypass route, with I-295, which bypasses the city to the west, and SR-9A, bypassing the city to the east. I-295 and SR-9A circumscribe the most populated portion of Jacksonville.
Jacksonville is also home to the world headquarters of CSX Transportation, which owns a large building on the riverbank downtown that is a significant part of the skyline. The Amtrak passenger railroad serves Jacksonville from a station on Clifford Lane in the northwest section of the city.
There are also numerous bridges over the St. Johns River at Jacksonville. They include (starting from furthest downstream) the Dames Point Bridge, the Mathews Bridge, the Isaiah D. Hart Bridge, the Main Street Bridge, the Acosta Bridge, the Fuller Warren Bridge (which carries I-95 traffic) and the Buckman Bridge.
Major commercial air service in Jacksonville operates out of Jacksonville International Airport. Smaller planes can fly to Craig Airport on the Southside and Herlong Airport on the Westside. The city also operates an airfield at Cecil Commerce Center that is intended for aerospace manufacturing companies.
Four modern seaport facilities, including America’s newest cruise port, make Jacksonville a full-service international seaport. In 2004, JAXPORT handled 7.7 million tons of cargo, including 533,000 vehicles. In 2003, the JAXPORT Cruise Terminal opened, providing cruise service to Key West, Florida, the Bahamas, and Mexico.
Jacksonville is the most populous city in Florida, and the twelfth most populous city in the United States. As of the census estimates of 2005, there were 782,623 people, 284,499 households, and 190,614 families residing in the city. The population density was 374.9/km² (970.9/mi²). There were 308,826 housing units at an average density of 157.4/km² (407.6/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 64.48% White, 34.03% Black or African American, 0.34% Native American, 2.78% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 1.33% from other races, and 1.99% from two or more races. 4.16% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Jacksonville has, as named by the United States Census the 10th largest Arab population in the United States.
There were 284,499 households out of which 33.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.7% were married couples living together, 16.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.0% were non-families. 26.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.53 and the average family size was 3.07. In the city, the population was spread out with 26.7% under the age of 18, 9.7% from 18 to 24, 32.3% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 10.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 93.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.6 males.
In 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $40,316, and the median income for a family was $47,243. Males had a median income of $32,547 versus $25,886 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,337. About 9.4% of families and 12.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.7% of those under age 18 and 12.0% of those age 65 or over.
As of 2000, English spoken as a first language accounted for 90.60%, while Spanish was at 4.13%, and Tagalog spoken as a mother tongue made up 1.00% of the population. In total, all languages spoken other than English were at 9.39%.
Jacksonville has a diverse religious population. Since 1906, the city’s Unitarian Universalists have worshipped at the Unitarian Universalist Church of Jacksonville The Episcopal Diocese of Florida has its seat in St. John’s Cathedral, the current building dating from 1906. There is a good representation of various Lutheran Synods, as well. The city is estimated to contain 265,158 Evangelical Protestants and 89,649 Mainline Protestants who attend a total of 794 churches. Several of these are megachurches, including First Baptist Church downtown and Christ’s Church in the Mandarin area. There are 162,329 Roman Catholics who attend 51 Catholic churches within the Roman Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine. The greater metropolitan area also has a Jewish population of 14,000, mostly residing in the suburb of Mandarin, Florida.
There are two Reform, four Conservative, and four Orthodox synagogues, three of them Chabad-affiliated,. There are over 3,000 members of various Eastern Orthodox church jurisdictions in eight parishes or missions, and 18,050 of other religious affiliations. Within the city limits there are also seven Mormon church buildings housing twelve congregations of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, a population of Muslims centered around the Islamic Center of Northeast Florida,, a Baha’i center, and New Age and Neopagan communities.
Jacksonville is home to a number of annual cultural events. The Jacksonville Jazz Festival is held every April and is the second-largest jazz festival in the nation. Other popular music festivals include The Spring Music Fest, a free concert sponsored by the city that features some of today’s most popular artists, Planetfest, featuring a variety of modern rock artists, and Springing the Blues, a free outdoor blues festival held in Jacksonville Beach.
The Jacksonville Film Festival is held every May and features a variety of independent films, documentaries, and shorts screening at seven historic venues in the city. Past attendees of the festival have included director John Landis and Academy Award nominee Bill Murray and winner Graham Greene, both of whom were awarded the Tortuga Verde Lifetime Achievement Award.
The Art Walk, a monthly outdoor art festival, is sponsored by Downtown Vision, Inc, an organization which works to promote artistic talent and venues on the First Coast.
Every July 4 is the Freedom, Fanfare & Fireworks celebration, one of the nation’s largest fireworks displays, held at Metropolitan Park and on the surface of the St. Johns River. A very large fireworks display is also held at Jacksonville Beach, centered on the rebuilt pier. The Greater Jacksonville Agricultural Fair is held every November at the Jacksonville Fairgrounds & Exposition Center, featuring an array of carnival rides, live entertainment, agriculture and livestock. Other annual cultural events include the Great Atlantic Seafood and Music Festival in March, the Blessing of the Fleet Parade of Boats and the Jacksonville International Boat Show in April, the World of Nations Celebration in May, and the Jacksonville Light Parade in November.
Jacksonville Museum of Modern Art (JMoMA) opened its facility in 2003, located adjacent to the Main Library downtown. Tracing its roots back to the formation of Jacksonville’s Fine Arts Society in 1924, the museum features eclectic permanent and traveling exhibitions. In November 2006, JMOMA was renamed Museum of Contemporary Art Jacksonville (MOCA Jacksonville) to reflect their continued commitment to art produced after the modernist period.
The Museum of Science and History (MOSH) is found on Jacksonville’s South Riverwalk, and features three stories of hands-on science and local history exhibits, including the Alexander Brest Planetarium.
The Cummer Museum of Art and Gardens holds a large collection of European and American paintings, as well as a world-renowned collection of early Meissen porcelain. The museum is surrounded by three acres of formal English and Italian style gardens, and is located in the Riverside neighborhood, on the bank of the St. Johns River.
There are also several historical properties and items of interest in the city, including the Klutho Building, the Old Morocco Temple Building, the Palm and Cycad Arboretum, and the Prime F. Osborn III Convention Center.
The Jacksonville Public Library had its beginnings when May Moore and Florence Murphy started the “Jacksonville Library and Literary Association” in 1878. The Association was populated by various prominent Jacksonville residents and sought to create a free public library and reading room for the city.
Over the course of 127 years, the system has grown from that one room library to become one of the largest in the state. Now featuring twenty branches - from the . West Regional Library (located on Chaffee Road in the western part of the city) to smaller neighborhood libraries like Westbrook and Eastside (located in the central part of the city) - the Library annually receives nearly 4 million visitors and circulates over 6 million items. Nearly 500,000 library cards are held by area residents.
On November 12, 2005, the new . Main Library opened to the public. The largest public library in the state, this opening was a historic event for the library system and the City of Jacksonville. It marks the completion of an unprecedented period of growth for the system under the Better Jacksonville Plan. It adds to the city’s architectural and cultural landscape and provides a gathering place downtown for the entire community. The new Main Library offers specialized reading rooms, public access to hundreds of computers and extensive collection of books and other materials, public displays of art, and special collections ranging from the African-American Collection to the recently opened Holocaust Collection.
The Florida Times-Union is the major daily newspaper in Jacksonville. Another daily newspaper is The Daily Record. Popular magazines include Folio Weekly, MetroJacksonville.com, Jacksonville Free Press, Jacksonville Business Journal, The Florida Star, Saint Augustine Catholic, Arbus and Jacksonville Magazine.
Jacksonville is served by television stations affiliated with major American networks including WTLV (NBC), WJXX (ABC), WTEV (CBS), WAWS (FOX/My Network TV), WJCT (PBS),and WCWJ (CW). WJXT is a former longtime CBS affiliate that turned independent in 2002.
Jax4Kids.com is a resource available to Jacksonville-area parents, grandparents and educators to find current and upcoming events, classes, camps, sports and other programs for cultural and educational enrichment for children.
Jacksonville’s radio market is dominated by the same two large ownership groups that dominate the radio industry across the United States: Cox Radio and Clear Channel Communications. The dominant AM radio station in terms of ratings is WOKV 690AM, which is also the flagship station for the Jacksonville Jaguars. In September of 2006, WOKV began simulcasting on 106.5 FM as WOKV FM. There are two radio stations broadcasting a primarily contemporary hits format; WAPE 95.1 has dominated this niche for over twenty years, and more recently has been challenged by WFKS 97.9 FM (KISS FM). WJBT 92.7 (The Beat) is a hip-hop/R&B station, WPLA 107.3 is a modern rock and alternative music station, WFYV 104.5—Rock 105 Jacksonville Classic rock, WQIK 99.1 is a country station as well as WGNE-FM 99.9 and WROO 93.3, WCRJ FM 88.1 (The Promise) is the main Contemporary Christian station operating since 1984, WHJX 105.7 is a soul station, WFJO 92.5 plays music in Spanish like salsa, merengue, and reggaeton, and WJCT 89.9 is the local public radio station and NPR affiliate. A local Jacksonville college, Jones College also hosts a station WKTZ 90.9 FM. See Radio Stations in Jacksonville, Florida for more radio stations in Jacksonville.
Jacksonville operates the largest urban park system in the United States, providing services at more than 337 locations on more than 80,000 acres (320 km²) located throughout the city. Jacksonville gathers significant natural beauty from the St. Johns River and Atlantic Ocean. The Jacksonville Beaches area is a center of recreation and nightlife, and the many parks around the city have received international recognition. The city center includes the Jacksonville Landing shopping center and the Riverwalk. Downtown Jacksonville has a memorable skyline with the tallest building being the Bank of America Building, constructed in 1990 with a height of 617 ft (188 m). Other notable structures include the Modis Building (once, with its distinctive flared base, the defining building in the Jacksonville skyline), originally built in 1972-74 by the Independent Life and Accident Insurance Company, and the Riverplace Tower, which is the tallest precast, post-tensioned concrete structure in the world.
The Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens boasts the second largest animal collection in the state. The zoo features elephants, lions, and, of course, jaguars (with an exhibit, Range of the Jaguar, hosted by the owners of the Jacksonville Jaguars, Delores and Wayne Weaver), as well as a multitude of reptile houses, free flight aviaries, and many other animals.
The Florida Theatre, opened in 1927, is located in downtown Jacksonville and is one of only four remaining high-style movie palaces built in Florida during the Mediterranean Revival architectural boom of the 1920s.
The Times-Union Center for the Performing Arts consists of three distinct halls: the Jim & Jan Moran Theater, the Jacoby Symphony Hall, and the Terry Theater. It was originally erected as the Civic Auditorium in 1962 and underwent a major renovation and construction in 1996. It is also the home of the Jacksonville Symphony Orchestra, founded in 1949.
The Jacksonville Veterans Memorial Arena, which opened in 2003, is a 16,000-seat performance venue that attracts national entertainment, and also houses the Jacksonville Sports Hall of Fame. It replaced the outdated Jacksonville Coliseum that was built in 1960 and demolished on June 26, 2003.
The Alhambra Dinner Theatre, located on the Southside near UNF, offers regular shows in which the audience eats while sitting in a half-square configuration around a stage. Numerous smaller, independent theaters are also available, such as Theatre Jacksonville in San Marco and Players by the Sea at the Beach.
Jacksonville is also home to The Teal Sound Drum and Bugle corps. A junior drum and bugle corps that competes in Drum Corps International Division II competition.
Like most US cities its size, Jacksonville is home to a number of professional sports teams, and, again like most cities its size, most of these teams do not compete in the “major leagues”. The exception to this rule is the Jacksonville Jaguars of the National Football League (NFL), which has been a source of significant civic pride since 1995. Jacksonville also is home to two universities, a four year college, and the fourth largest community college in the United States; all of these institutions field teams as well, garnering varying levels of public attention. Additionally, a number of college sports events are held on an annual basis in Jacksonville by teams and conferences not located within the city.
| Club | Sport | League | Venue |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jacksonville Jaguars | Football | National Football League (NFL) - AFC | Jacksonville Municipal Stadium |
| Jacksonville Suns | Baseball | Southern League - Southern Division | Baseball Grounds of Jacksonville |
| Jacksonville University | College Baseball | NCAA - Atlantic Sun Conference | Alexander Brest Field |
| Jacksonville Barracudas | Hockey | Southern Professional Hockey League (SPHL) | Jacksonville Ice |
| Jacksonville Jam | Basketball | American Basketball Association (ABA) | UNF Arena |
| Jacksonville Dixie Blues | Women’s Football | Women’s Football League | Episcopal High School |
| Jacksonville Breakers | Women’s Ice Hockey | Florida Women’s Hockey League | Jacksonville Ice |
| Jacksonville University | College Football | NCAA – Pioneer Football League | D.B. Milne Field |
| Edward Waters College | College Football | NAIA – Florida Sun Conference | Earl Kitchings Stadium |
| Jacksonville University | College Basketball | NCAA – Atlantic Sun Conference | Jacksonville Veterans Memorial Arena |
| Edward Waters College | College Basketball | NAIA – Florida Sun Conference | James Weldon Johnson Gymansium |
| University of North Florida | College Basketball | NCAA – Atlantic Sun Conference | UNF Arena |
| University of North Florida | College Baseball | NCAA – Atlantic Sun Conference | UNF Harmon Stadium |
| Jacksonville Axemen | Rugby League | American National Rugby League | UNF Stadium Field |
| First Coast Fatales | Roller Derby | Womens Flat Track Roller Derby | Mandarin Skate Station |
Jacksonville’s history with professional football goes back to the 1960s. In 1967 and 1968 the city hosted the American Football League (AFL) All Star Game at the Gator Bowl; Jacksonville was the only non-AFL city to host the game. It was presumed at the time that this was a prelude to Jacksonville getting an AFL expansion team, but when the AFL merged with the rival NFL in 1970 expansion plans were scrapped. Jacksonville had its first professional football teams with the Jacksonville Sharks (1974) and Jacksonville Express (1975) of the World Football League; however, the WFL folded in 1975. In 1984 football returned for two seasons with the Jacksonville Bulls of the United States Football League (USFL). However, the USFL ceased operations after the 1985 season.
Several NFL teams flirted with moving to the city over the years. The owners of the Baltimore Colts and Houston Oilers appeared to be serious about moving to Jacksonville, and other teams also mentioned Jacksonville as a relocation possibility, but no team ever did move to Jacksonville. It was only with the awarding of an NFL franchise to the city in 1995 that Jacksonville’s dream of joining the NFL came true.
The Jaguars compete in the South Division of the American Football Conference of the National Football League. Though the Jaguars have never played in the Super Bowl, they have twice in their short history played for the AFC championship—following the 1996 and 1999 seasons. As the team’s fortunes have waned somewhat since the 1990s, the team has struggled with ticket sales, and local blackouts have occurred.
Jacksonville also hosted Super Bowl XXXIX, the third city in Florida to host the annual event. As the smallest metropolitan area to ever host a Super Bowl, special accommodations were necessary, such as bringing in cruise ships to serve as hotel rooms.
Outside of the NFL, there is also a Women’s Football League team, the Jacksonville Dixie Blues. The city was previously home to the af2’s Jacksonville Tomcats from 2000 to 2002. A National Indoor Football League expansion franchise, the Green Cove Lions, played briefly in nearby Green Cove Springs, Florida in 2007.
Though golf is of course not a team sport, the Jacksonville area is “on the map” of the top level of professional golf, primarily for the annual Players Championship held just south of the city limits in Sawgrass, in St. Johns County. Many regard The Players as the most prestigious non-major tournament of the pro tour. Additionally, the PGA tour also has its headquarters in Ponte Vedra Beach. St. Johns County is also home to the World Golf Village and the Golf Hall of Fame.
The city and surrounding communities also boast an extraordinarily high number of golf courses, and some tour players make the Jacksonville area their year-round home.
Jacksonville hosts a Double-A team, the Jacksonville Suns. The Suns are currently a farm team for the Los Angeles Dodgers, and play in the Southern League. The team has several Southern League championships, the most recent of which was won in 2006. The Suns play at the Baseball Grounds of Jacksonville, which is frequently cited as the finest baseball facility in Double-A baseball. Part of the reason for the high quality of the ballpark is the fact that the city built the Baseball Grounds in the hopes of someday landing a Triple-A team, though that is regarded as highly unlikely anytime in the foreseeable future.
Professional tennis is in town each year when the WTA holds the Bausch & Lomb Championships at Amelia Island Plantation near Fernandina Beach, just north of Jacksonville. Other sports events include the annual Kingfish Tournament held in July.
In 2007 the city is set to host a women’s soccer team in the Women’s Amateur Development Soccer League. In rugby league, the Jacksonville Axemen play in the American National Rugby League.
The Jacksonville Jam began playing as an ABA expansion team in November of 2006. They have since moved to the PBL, where they will start play in January of 2008.
The current ice hockey team is the Jacksonville Barracudas, of the Southern Professional Hockey League. The Barracudas brought the city its only professional hockey championship with the WHA2 President’s Cup in 2004.
Jacksonville’s bowl game, the Gator Bowl—one of the oldest bowl games in existence—began in 1946. The Florida Gators and Georgia Bulldogs have played their annual Southeastern Conference game (commonly known as commonly known as “The World’s Largest Outdoor Cocktail Party”) in Jacksonville every year since 1933, save a two-year hiatus caused by the coming of the NFL to the city.
The Atlantic Coast Conference utilizes Jacksonville as the host city for its championships in both football and baseball, held at Jacksonville Municipal Stadium and the Baseball Grounds, respectively.
On March 2006, Jacksonville was one of the sites for the first round of the NCAA 68th Annual Division I Basketball Championship. Jacksonville University was the host team, and the games were held in the Jacksonville Veterans Memorial Arena, JU’s regular home court.
Besides hosting outside teams and leagues, Jacksonville is also home to three four-year colleges and their teams.
In the early 1900s, New York-based moviemakers were attracted to Jacksonville’s warm climate, exotic locations, excellent rail access, and cheaper labor, earning the city the title of “The Winter Film Capital of the World”. Over 30 movie studios were opened and thousands of silent films produced between 1908 and the 1920s, when most studios relocated to Hollywood, California.
Since that time, Jacksonville has been chosen by a number of film and television studios for on-location shooting. Notable motion pictures that have been partially or completely shot in Jacksonville since the silent film era include Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954), The New Adventures of Pippi Longstocking (1988), Brenda Starr (1989), G.I. Jane (1997), The Devil’s Advocate (1997), Ride (1998), Why Do Fools Fall In Love (1998), Forces of Nature (1999), Tigerland (2000), Sunshine State (2002), Basic (2003), The Manchurian Candidate (2004), Lonely Hearts (2006), Monster House (2006), Moving McAllister (2007), Rockett (2007), Throwing Stars (2007), and Glad All Over (2008).
Notable television series or made-for-television films that have been partially or completely shot in Jacksonville include Intimate Strangers (1986), Inherit the Wind (1988), Roxanne: The Prize Pulitzer (1989), A Girl of the Limberlost (1990), Orpheus Descending (1990), Pointman (1995), Saved by the Light (1995), The Babysitter’s Seduction (1996), Sudden Terror: The Hijacking of School Bus #17 (1996), First Time Felon (1997), Gold Coast (1997), Safe Harbor (1999), The Conquest of America (2005), and Super Bowl XXXIX (2005).
Jacksonville’s location on the St. Johns River and the Atlantic Ocean proved providential in the growth of the city and its industry. The largest city in the state, it is also the largest deepwater port in the south (as well as the second-largest port on the U.S. East coast) and a leading port in the U.S. for automobile imports, as well as the leading transportation and distribution hub in the state. However, the strength of the city’s economy lies in its broad diversification. The area’s economy is balanced among distribution, financial services, biomedical technology, consumer goods, information services, manufacturing, and other industries.
Jacksonville is a rail, air, and highway focal point and a busy port of entry, with Jacksonville International Airport, ship repair yards and extensive freight-handling facilities. Lumber, phosphate, paper, cigars and wood pulp are the principal exports; automobiles and coffee are among imports. The city also has a large and diverse manufacturing base. According to Forbes.com Jacksonville, Florida ranked in the top ten U.S. cities to relocate to find a job.
Jacksonville is home of several corporations and organizations:
See also: Famous businesses native to Jacksonville, Florida
, List of foreign consulates in Jacksonville
As the largest city in land area in the contiguous United States, Jacksonville is informally divided into four major sections; Downtown, which forms the urban core of the city, lying on the north bank of the narrowest part of the St. Johns River, Southside, which refers to everything between the St. Johns River and the Intracoastal Waterway; Northside, which is generally considered to be everything north of the St. Johns and east of New Kings Road; and Westside, which consists of everything west of the St. Johns River and south of New Kings Rd. (There is also a distinct part of the city known as “Eastside” which is actually part of Downtown.) Additionally, with the rapid growth in the eastern parts of Duval County, the Intracoastal/Beaches area has emerged as a major section as well, but is not generally included in a Jacksonville list, since the Beaches communities lie outside of the Jacksonville city limits.
Each of these sections is divided into many neighborhoods. Some of these neighborhoods, such as Mandarin and Dinsmore, had existed previously as independent towns or villages, prior to consolidation, and have their own histories.
Jacksonville has six sister cities. They are:
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In 2000, The Sister Cities International awarded Jacksonville the Innovation Arts & Culture Award for the city’s program with Nantes.
Performing Arts
Art Museums and Galleries
Asko could be
A primary cell is any kind of electrochemical cell in which the electrochemical reaction of interest is not reversible, so used in disposable batteries. The most common primary cells today are found in alkaline batteries; earlier carbon-zinc cells, with a carbon post as cathode and a zinc shell as anode were prevalent. Unlike a secondary cell, attempting to reverse the reaction in a primary cell via recharging is dangerous and can lead to a battery explosion. A related difference is that primary batteries use up the materials in one or both of their electrodes, while, ideally, the reversibility of the reactions in a secondary cell allows them to be restored to almost the same fully charged condition on each recharging.
Even though rechargeable batteries are more expensive than disposable batteries with equivalent voltages and shapes, the rechargeable batteries would be much cheaper if the main price is divided with the full number of recharge cycles, even including a battery charger, compared to the total cost of number of primary cells equivalent to recharge cycles of NiMH, NiCd and Li-Ion batteries.
However, there are some battery uses that require long dormancy periods and few replacements, so major issue is charge retention. In these circumstances, certain rechargeable battery technologies may not be appropriate, as they may have a high self-discharge rate compared to equivalent non-rechargeable batteries. For example, a flashlight used for emergency purposes must work when needed, even if it has sat on a shelf for an extended period of time. Primary cells are also more cost-efficient in this case, as rechargeable batteries would use only a small fraction of available recharge cycles.
Most of these cells are now used only for demonstration purposes in laboratories. For further details see the individual articles.
Revo may refer to:
Reverse video (or invert video) is a computer display technique wherein the background and text colour values are swapped, like this. On older computers, it was sometimes used on specific letters, words or phrases to highlight them.
Usually this is done by inverting the brightness values of the pixels of the involved region of the display with an exclusive or. Since brightness values usually range from 0 to 255, a 255 value becomes 0 and vice versa. A 1 value becomes 254, etc. This is occasionally called a ones complement. If the source image is a neutral gray color, reverse video can be difficult to see.
Although reverse video can be used to indicate text the user has selected, it is more common in modern desktop environments to change the background to blue instead of black, since blue stands out even more in an otherwise monochrome block of text.
The Lurker’s Guide to Babylon 5 is a popular fan-run website containing detailed episode guides and analyses, production history notes, background materials, references, and other information related to the science fiction epic, Babylon 5. Series creator and writer J. Michael Straczynski and other production crew have been known to use it.http://jmsnews.com/msg.aspx?id=1-12074&query=lurker’s%20guide The name is derived from the term lurker, which Straczynski adopted to refer to the underclass residents on the Babylon 5 station.
Contents |
The Lurker’s Guide has five major sections, starting with “The Babylon 5 Universe”. This section introduces the show and gives background on historical events in the series’ timeline that shaped its political and social climate. There are also sections for resources and references, and detailed information on the production of the show.
The heart of The Guide lies in the individual episode listings. Each episode and telefilm has a synopsis page, a background page (providing a description and explanation of the story arc up to that episode), and detailed cast and crew credits. The main guide page is the most utilized resource. It contains a “backplot” section, which shows how the episode relates to the overall story arc, a section for unanswered questions from the episode, a detailed analysis section, plus a section on miscellaneous notes. Each article concludes with a “JMS Speaks” section, which contains Straczynski’s comments about the episode, gathered from various online forums on which he posted.
The Guide was created by Steven Grimm around early 1993, long before the pilot aired, as a FAQ posted on Usenet. A website was set up, but when the FAQ became too cumbersome, The Guide was born. Grimm maintained the site, with contributions from several fans over the years.
During the run of Babylon 5, The Lurker’s Guide was updated, adding new facts and insights whenever they became available. Although the site is not updated as frequently since the series’ end, it still serves as a record and reference of the fan experience surrounding Babylon 5. Straczynski commented that even he used the site for quick reference, calling it a “valuable resource”.
The Guide and its associated FTP archive used to be located at hyperion.com before Grimm lost the domain. In the first-season episode “A Voice in the Wilderness”, Straczynski named the EAS Hyperion cruiser after the site.
In 1997, when TV Guide ran a cover story on Babylon 5, The Guide was one of the websites featured in a special sidebar.
On the Babylon 5 Season 5 DVD, Straczynski also acknowledged The Lurker’s Guide and Grimm for his years of help and support, illustrating The Guide’s significant central role in the development of Babylon 5 fandom, and the series itself.
In telecommunication, the term burst transmission has the following meanings:
Note: Burst transmission enables communications between data terminal equipment (DTEs) and a data network operating at dissimilar data signaling rates. Synonym data burst.
Source: from Federal Standard 1037C and from MIL-STD-188
The SLOSS Debate was a debate in ecology and conservation biology during the 1970s and 1980s as to whether a Single Large or Several Small (SLOSS) reserves was a superior means of conserving biodiversity in a fragmented habitat.
In 1975 Jared Diamond suggested some “rules” for the design of protected areas, based on Robert MacArthur and E. O. Wilson’s Theory of Island Biogeography. One of his suggestions was that a single large reserve was preferable to several smaller reserves whose total area was the same as that of the single large reserve. Since species richness increases with habitat area, a larger block of habitat would support more species than any of the smaller blocks. This idea was popularised by many other ecologists, and has been incorporated into most standard textbooks in conservation biology, and was used in real-world conservation planning. This idea was challenged by Wilson’s former student Daniel Simberloff who pointed out that this idea relied on the assumption that smaller reserves had a nested species composition - it assumed that each larger reserve had all the species presented in any smaller reserve. If the smaller reserves had unshared species, then it was possible that two smaller reserves could have more species than a single large reserve. Debate ensued as to the extent to which smaller reserves shared species with one another, leading to the development of nested subset theory by Bruce Patterson and Wirt Atmar in the 1980s and to the establishment of the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project (BDFFP) near Manaus, Brazil in 1980 by Thomas Lovejoy.
At common law, battery is the tort of intentionally (or, in Australia, negligently) and volitionally bringing about an unconsented harmful or offensive contact with a person or to something closely associated with them (i.e. a hat, a purse, etc.). It is a form of trespass to the person. As distinguished from assault, battery requires an actual contact. The contact need not be with the tortfeasor but the tortfeasor may bring about the contact with something else. For example, A runs over B with his car. This is a battery. Battery is actionable per se, meaning that a claim for the tort may succeed without proof of damage.
Intent: All jurisdictions define intent to mean purpose to bring about a consequence or having substantial certainty that a consequence will occur. This is an objective standard.
In the United States, the common law defines the contact for battery as “harmful or offensive”. The offensive prong is determined by the reasonable person standard. Looking at a contact objectively, as a reasonable person would see it, would this contact be offensive? Thus, a hypersenstive person would fail on a battery action if jostled by fellow passengers on a subway, as this contact is expected in normal society and a reasonable person would not find it offensive. Harmful is defined by any physical damage to the body.
Battery need not require body-to-body contact. Any volitional movement, such as throwing an object toward another, can constitute battery. Touching an object “intimately connected” to a person (such as an object he or she is holding) can also be battery.
Intent can be transferred with battery, i.e. a person swings to hit one person and misses and hits another. He or she is still liable for a battery.
The standard defenses to trespass to the person, namely necessity and consent, apply to battery. As practical examples, under the first, a physician may touch a person without that person’s consent in order to render medical aid to him or her in an emergency. Under the second, a person who has, either expressly or impliedly, consented to participation in a contact sport cannot claim in battery against other participants for a contact permitted by the rules of that sport.
In mathematics, a modular equation is an algebraic equation satisfied by moduli, in the sense of moduli problem. That is, given a number of functions on a moduli space, a modular equation is an equation holding between them, or in other words an identity for moduli.
The most frequent use of the term modular equation is in relation with the moduli problems for elliptic curves. In that case the moduli space itself is of dimension 1. That implies that any two rational functions F and G, in the function field of the modular curve, will satisfy a modular equation P(F,G) = 0 with P a non-zero polynomial of two variables over the complex numbers. For suitable non-degenerate choice of F and G, the equation P(X,Y) = 0 will actually define the modular curve.
One should qualify that by saying that P, in the worst case, will be of high degree and the plane curve it defines will have singular points; and the coefficients of P may be very large numbers. Further, the ‘cusps’ of the moduli problem, which are the points of the modular curve not corresponding to honest elliptic curves but degenerate cases, may be difficult to read off from knowledge of P.
That all being said, in that sense a modular equation becomes the equation of a modular curve. Such equations first arose in the theory of multiplication of elliptic functions (geometrically, the n2-fold covering map from a 2-torus to itself given by the mapping x → n·x on the underlying group) expressed in terms of complex analysis.
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